What Is: Biological Plasticity

Image Credit: Scientific Frontline

The Paradigm of the Reactive Genome 

The history of biological thought has long been dominated by a tension between the deterministic rigidity of the genotype and the fluid adaptability of the phenotype. For much of the 20th century, the Modern Synthesis emphasized the primacy of genetic mutation and natural selection, often relegating environmental influence to a mere background filter against which genes were selected. In this view, the organism was a fixed readout of a genetic program, stable and unwavering until a random mutation altered the code. However, a profound paradigm shift has occurred, repositioning the organism not as a static entity but as a dynamic system capable of producing distinct, often dramatically different phenotypes from a single genotype in response to environmental variation. This capacity, known as biological or phenotypic plasticity, is now recognized as a fundamental property of life, permeating every level of biological organization—from the epigenetic modification of chromatin in a stem cell nucleus to the behavioral phase transitions of swarming locusts, and ultimately to the structural rewiring of the mammalian cortex following injury. 

The Quest for the Synthetic Synapse

Spike Timing" difference (Biology vs. Silicon)
Image Credit: Scientific Frontline

The modern AI revolution is built on a paradox: it is incredibly smart, but thermodynamically reckless. A large language model requires megawatts of power to function, whereas the human brain—which allows you to drive a car, debate philosophy, and regulate a heartbeat simultaneously—runs on roughly 20 watts, the equivalent of a dim lightbulb.

To close this gap, science is moving away from the "Von Neumann" architecture (where memory and processing are separate) toward Neuromorphic Computing—chips that mimic the physical structure of the brain. This report analyzes how close we are to building a "synthetic synapse."

What Is: Dementia

Illustration Credit: Scientific Frontline

The End of the Passive Era

The year 2025 marks a definitive inflection point in the history of neuroscience and geriatric medicine. For decades, the field of dementia care was characterized by a certain fatalism—a paradigm of "diagnose and manage" where the clinician’s role was largely to document decline and support the family. That era has officially closed. We have entered the age of precision intervention, defined by the ability to detect neurodegenerative pathology in blood plasma decades before symptoms arise, the availability of disease-modifying immunotherapies that clear toxic proteins from the brain, and a nuanced biological understanding that has shattered the monolithic concept of "senility" into a spectrum of distinct, treatable molecular events.

Our Scientific Frontline report provides an exhaustive analysis of the dementia landscape as it stands in late 2025. It synthesizes data from the latest clinical trials, including the landmark approval of subcutaneous maintenance dosing for anti-amyloid therapies, and examines the emerging economic reality where the global cost of dementia is projected to triple by mid-century. We explore the biological underpinnings of conditions ranging from classic Alzheimer’s Disease to the newly characterized Limbic-predominant Age-related TDP-43 Encephalopathy (LATE), and we evaluate the transformative potential of 14 modifiable risk factors that could prevent nearly half of all cases.

What Is: Mitochondrion

Evolutionary Singularities and the Eukaryotic Dawn

The mitochondrion represents a biological singularity, a discrete evolutionary event that fundamentally partitioned life on Earth into two distinct energetic stratums: the prokaryotic and the eukaryotic. While colloquially reduced to the moniker of "cellular powerhouse," the mitochondrion is, in functional reality, a highly integrated endosymbiont that serves as the master regulator of eukaryotic physiology. It is the nexus of cellular respiration, the arbiter of programmed cell death, a buffer for intracellular calcium, and a hub for biosynthetic pathways ranging from heme synthesis to steroidogenesis. To comprehend the complexity of multicellular life, one must first dissect the intricate molecular sociology of this organelle.   

The origin of the mitochondrion is the subject of intense phylogenomic reconstruction. The prevailing consensus, the endosymbiotic theory, posits that the mitochondrion descends from a free-living bacterial ancestor—specifically a lineage within the Alphaproteobacteria—that entered into a symbiotic relationship with a host archaeal cell approximately 1.5 to 2 billion years ago. This was not a trivial acquisition but a transformative merger. The energetic capacity afforded by the internalization of a bioenergetic specialist allowed the host cell to escape the surface-area-to-volume constraints that limit prokaryotic genome size, facilitating the expansion of the nuclear genome and the development of complex intracellular compartmentalization. 

What Is: Hormones

The "Chemical Messenger"
The Endocrine System and Chemical Communication
Image Credit: Scientific Frontline

The Silent Orchestrators

Hormones are the silent orchestrators of the human body. They are the unseen chemical messengers that, in infinitesimally small quantities, conduct the complex symphony of life. These powerful molecules control and regulate nearly every critical function, from our mood, sleep, and metabolism to our growth, energy levels, and reproductive functions.

At its most fundamental level, a hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland, organ, or specialized tissue in one part of the body. It is then released—typically into the bloodstream—to travel to other parts of the body, where it acts on specific "target cells" to coordinate function.

The power of this system, which has identified over 50 distinct hormones in humans, lies in its exquisite specificity. Although hormones circulate throughout the entire body, reaching every cell, they only affect the cells that are equipped to listen. This is governed by the "lock and key" principle: target cells possess specific "receptors," either on their surface or inside the cell, that are shaped to bind only to a compatible hormone. This report will delve into the world of these powerful molecules, exploring the intricate system that creates them, the chemical language they speak, and the profound, lifelong impact they have on our daily health and well-being.

What Is: The Human Microbiome

The Human Microbiome
Image Credit: Scientific Frontline stock image

The Invisible Organ

The human body is not a sterile, solitary entity. It is a dense, complex, and dynamic ecosystem. Each individual serves as a host to a vast community of microorganisms, collectively known as the human microbiota. This community, which resides in and on the body, is estimated to comprise between 10 trillion and 100 trillion symbiotic microbial cells. Early estimates, which have become a cornerstone of the field, suggested these microbial cells outnumber human cells by a ratio of ten to one. While more recent analyses propose a ratio closer to 1:1, the sheer scale of this microbial colonization remains staggering. These microbial cells, though only one-tenth to one-hundredth the size of a human cell, may account for up to five pounds of an adult's body weight.

This vast microbial community is not a passive passenger. It functions as a "virtual organ" of the body, or more precisely, a "metabolic organ". It is so deeply integrated into our physiology that we are dependent on it for essential life functions, including digestion, immune system development, and the production of critical nutrients.

Researchers decipher a mechanism that determines the complexity of the glucocorticoid receptor

Above, from left to right, Pilar Montanyà-Vallugera, José Luis Torbado-Gardeazábal, Inés Montoya-Novoa and Montse Abella-Monleón. Below, from left to right, Alba Jiménez-Panizo, Pablo Fuentes-Prior, Eva Estébanez-Perpiñá and Andrea Alegre-Martí.
Photo Credit: Courtesy of University of Barcelona

Drugs to treat inflammatory and autoimmune diseases — such as asthma, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis or Chrousos syndrome — act mainly through the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). This essential protein regulates vital processes in various tissues, so understanding its structure and function at the molecular level is essential for designing more effective and safer drugs. Now, a study published in the journal Nucleic Acids Research (NAR) has revealed the mechanism of multimerization — the association of different molecules to form complex structures — of the glucocorticoid receptor, a process critical to its physiological function.

Deciphering how the GR forms oligomers — through the binding of several subunits — opens a crucial avenue for developing more selective drugs. These new drugs could modulate this association and thus minimize serious adverse effects, such as immunosuppression or bone loss.

New advances to boost regeneration and plasticity of brain neurons

The study is led by Professor Daniel Tornero and researcher Alba Ortega , from the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences and the Institute of Neurosciences of the University of Barcelona
Photo Credit: Courtesy of University of Barcelona

The brain’s mechanisms for repairing injuries caused by trauma or degenerative diseases are not yet known in detail. Now, a study by the University of Barcelona describes a new strategy based on stem cell therapy that could enhance neuronal regeneration and neuroplasticity when this vital organ is damaged. The results reveal that the use of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), combined with stem cell-based cell therapies, could help in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases or brain injuries.

Combining cell therapy with BDNF production

BDNF is a protein that is synthesized mainly in the brain and plays a key role in neuronal development and synaptic plasticity. Several studies have described its potential to promote neuronal survival and growth, findings that are now extended by the new study.

“The findings indicate that BDNF can promote the maturation and increase the activity of neurons generated in the laboratory from donor skin cells. The skin cells must first be reprogrammed to become induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and then differentiated to obtain neuronal cultures,” says Daniel Tornero, from the UB’s Department of Biomedicine and the CIBER Area for the Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED).

In this way, the study combines cell therapy with the production of BDNF in the same cells. This study confirms the beneficial effects of this growth factor in neuronal cultures derived from human stem cells, the same cells that are used in cell therapy to treat, for example, stroke in animal models.

Large Genetic Study Links Cannabis Use to Psychiatric, Cognitive and Physical Health

The study uncovered new relationships between gene variants associated with cannabis use and psychiatric, cognitive and physical health.
Image Credit: Scientific Frontline / AI generated

University of California San Diego of Medicine researchers, in collaboration with the genetic testing company 23andMe, have identified regions of the human genome associated with cannabis use, uncovering new relationships with psychiatric, cognitive and physical health. The findings may inform the development of prevention and treatment strategies for cannabis use disorder. The study was published on October 13, 2025 in Molecular Psychiatry.

“Cannabis is widely used, but its long-term effects on health remain poorly characterized,” said Sandra Sanchez-Roige, Ph.D., associate professor of psychiatry at UC San Diego School of Medicine and senior author of the study. The researchers were also interested in the relationship between genetics and traits that contribute to the development of cannabis use disorder, which can interfere with a person’s daily life.

“While most people who try cannabis do not go on to develop cannabis use disorder, some studies estimate that nearly 30% will,” said Sanchez-Roige. “Understanding the genetics of early-stage behaviors may help clarify who is at greater risk, opening the door to prevention and intervention strategies.”

Titanium-Based Prosthesis Alloy Scientists Have Tested Deformation

The co-authors of the development, as well as specialists from the UrFU Department of Heat Treatment and Metal Physics.
Photo Credit: Rodion Narudinov

Scientists from Ural Federal University, Institute of Strength Physics and Materials Science of the SB RAS and National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University have tested new titanium-based alloys, which have several advantages over traditional medical ones. Two types of titanium alloys — TNZ (including niobium and zirconium) and multi-element TNZTS (with niobium, zirconium, tantalum and tin) — were subjected to uniaxial pressing and multi-pass rolling. As a result of exposure, ultrafine-grained structures were formed in the alloys, which significantly increased the strength and hardness of the material. The results of the research were published in the Materials Letters Journal. 

Crystal structure of titan (α-phase) that formed after tests trial improved the strength characteristics of the TNZ-alloy, but at the same time reduced its plasticity and Young’s modulus, important characteristics of materials for prostheses. In case of elastic deformations of the bone—implant system, the load on the tissue depends on the ratio of the Young's modulus of the implant material and bone tissue. The lower this ratio, the lower the probability of necrosis and destruction of bone by implant pressure. Mechanical and biocompatibility increase the prospects for the introduction of materials developed by scientists in medicine, aerospace and defense industries.

Fueling nerve cell function and plasticity

The picture shows neurons (magenta) born in the adult mouse hippocampus. Nuclei are stained cyan. The extending dendrites are important sites where mechanisms of plasticity and competition for survival take place.
Photo Credit: Courtesy of ©Bergami Lab / University of Cologne

New finding from scientists at the University of Cologne discloses how mitochondria control tissue rejuvenation and synaptic plasticity in the adult mouse brain

Nerve cells (neurons) are amongst the most complex cell types in our body. They achieve this complexity during development by extending ramified branches called dendrites and axons and establishing thousands of synapses to form intricate networks. The production of most neurons is confined to embryonic development, yet few brain regions are exceptionally endowed with neurogenesis throughout adulthood. It is unclear how neurons born in these regions successfully mature and remain competitive to exert their functions within a fully formed organ. However, understanding these processes holds great potential for brain repair approaches during disease.

A team of researchers led by Professor Dr Matteo Bergami at the University of Cologne’s CECAD Cluster of Excellence in Aging Research addressed this question in mouse models, using a combination of imaging, viral tracing and electrophysiological techniques. They found that, as new neurons mature, their mitochondria (the cells’ power houses) along dendrites undergo a boost in fusion dynamics to acquire more elongated shapes. This process is key in sustaining the plasticity of new synapses and refining pre-existing brain circuits in response to complex experiences. The study ‘Enhanced mitochondrial fusion during a critical period of synaptic plasticity in adult-born neurons’ has been published in the journal Neuron.

Ultrasound therapy shows promise as a treatment for Alzheimer’s disease

Professor Jürgen Götz with an ultrasound machine.
Photo Credit: Courtesy of University of Queensland

University of Queensland researchers have found targeting amyloid plaque in the brain is not essential for ultrasound to deliver cognitive improvement in neurodegenerative disorders.

Dr Gerhard Leinenga and Professor Jürgen Götz from UQ’s Queensland Brain Institute (QBI) said the finding challenges the conventional notion in Alzheimer’s disease research that targeting and clearing amyloid plaque is essential to improve cognition.

“Amyloid plaques are clumps of protein that can build up in the brain and block communication between brain cells, leading to memory loss and other symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease,” Dr Leinenga said.

“Previous studies have focused on opening the blood-brain barrier with microbubbles, which activate the cell type in the brain called microglia which clears the amyloid plaque. 

“But we used scanning ultrasound alone on mouse models and observed significant memory enhancement.”

Neighboring synapses shape learning and memory

A mathematical model reveals how interactions between neighboring contact sites of nerve cells influence learning.
Image Credit: University of Basel, Biozentrum

A researcher at the University of Basel, in collaboration with a colleague in Austria, has developed a new model that provides a holistic view on how our brain manages to learn quickly and forms stable, long-lasting memories. Their study sheds light on the crucial role of interactions among neighboring contact sites of nerve cells for brain plasticity – the brain’s ability to adapt to new experiences.

In 1949, the Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb described that connections between neurons become stronger when the neurons are active at the same time and that strengthened connections facilitate signal transmission. The ability of our brain to modify the connections between neurons is fundamental for learning and memory.

 “It has long been assumed that these adaptations occur mostly on a one-on-one basis at specific synapses, the contact sites between two neurons”, explains Dr. Everton Agnes from the Biozentrum, University of Basel. “Interestingly, synapses that undergo changes also affect multiple neighboring synapses.” As these complex synaptic interactions are difficult to investigate experimentally, Agnes and his colleague Prof. Tim Vogels from the Institute of Science and Technology Austria have built a theoretical model to disentangle this phenomenon, also known as co-dependency. Their work has recently been published in Nature Neuroscience.

The integrity of the blood-brain barrier depends on a protein that is altered in some neurodegenerative diseases

From left to right, Pilar Villacampa, Víctor Arribas and Eloi Montañez.
Photo Credit: Courtesy of University of Barcelona

Defects in the blood vessel network of the central nervous system have been linked to early symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It is this complex vascular network that provides the necessary nutrients, especially glucose and oxygen to activate all neuronal functions. Now, a study led by the University of Barcelona and the Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IBIDELL) reveals that the TDP-43 protein is essential for forming a stable and mature blood vessel network in the central nervous system.

According to the study the TDP-43 protein is also critical in maintaining the integrity of the blood-brain barrier, which prevents toxins and pathogens from reaching the central nervous system.

The project is led by Professor Eloi Montañez, from the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences of the University of Barcelona and IDIBELL, and involves teams from the Faculty of Biology and the Institute of Biomedicine of the UB (IBUB), the Josep Carreras Leukemia Research Institute, and the National Centre for Genomic Analysis (CNAG-CRG).

Nanosurgical tool could be key to cancer breakthrough

Electron microscopy image of the nanopipette.
Photo Credit: Dr Alexander Kulak

A nanosurgical tool - about 500 times thinner than a human hair - could give insights into cancer treatment resistance that no other technology has been able to do, according to a new study.

The high-tech double-barrel nanopipette, developed by University of Leeds scientists, and applied to the global medical challenge of cancer, has - for the first time - enabled researchers to see how individual living cancer cells react to treatment and change over time – providing vital understanding that could help doctors develop more effective cancer medication.  

The tool has two nanoscopic needles, meaning it can simultaneously inject and extract a sample from the same cell, expanding its potential uses. And the platform’s high level of semi-automation has sped up the process dramatically, enabling scientists to extract data from many more individual cells, with far greater accuracy and efficiency than previously possible, the study shows. 

Currently, techniques for studying single cells usually destroy them, meaning a cell can be studied either before treatment, or after.  

This device can take a “biopsy” of a living cell repeatedly during exposure to cancer treatment, sampling tiny extracts of its contents without killing it, enabling scientists to observe its reaction over time. 

During the study, the multi-disciplinary team, featuring biologists and engineers, tested cancer cells’ resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy using glioblastoma (GBM) - the deadliest form of brain tumor - as a test case, because of its ability to adapt to treatment and survive. 

Pancreatic cancer lives on mucus

A cross-section of a mouse’s early-stage pancreatic tumor. CSHL scientists discovered that early pancreatic cancer cells depend on the regulators of mucus production to survive and grow. Green, purple, yellow, cyan, and white denote areas where mucus production is high.
Image Credit: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory

Knowing exactly what’s inside a tumor can maximize our ability to fight cancer. But that knowledge doesn’t come easy. Tumors are clusters of constantly changing cancer cells. Some become common cancer variants. Others morph into deadlier, drug-resistant varieties. No one truly understands what governs this chaotic behavior.

Now, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL) Professor David Tuveson and his team have uncovered a mechanism involved in pancreatic cancer transformation—mucus. During the disease’s early stage, pancreatic cancer cells produce mucus. Additionally, these cells depend on the body’s regulators of mucus production. This new knowledge could help set the stage for future diagnostic or therapeutic strategies.

The unpredictable, shifting nature of tumors makes it challenging to pinpoint the right treatments for patients. “We need to better understand this concept of cell plasticity and design therapy that takes this into consideration,” says Claudia Tonelli, a research investigator in the Tuveson lab, who led the study.

Desert Ants: The Magnetic Field Calibrates the Navigation System

The desert ant Cataglyphis nodus at its nest entrance - an inconspicuous hole in the ground that cannot be seen from the ant's perspective. To find its way back there, the ant uses the earth's magnetic field during its learning walks.
Photo Credit: Robin Grob

Desert ants find their way during an early learning phase with the help of the Earth's magnetic field. The associated learning process leaves clear traces in their nervous system. This is shown in a new study by a Würzburg research team.

They are only a few centimeters tall and their brains have a comparatively simple structure with less than one million neurons. Nevertheless, desert ants of the Cataglyphis genus possess abilities that distinguish them from many other creatures: The animals are able to orient themselves to the Earth's magnetic field.

Visible Changes in the Nervous System

A research team from Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (JMU) discovered this a few years ago. However, it was previously unknown where in the ants' brains the magnetic information is processed. This has now changed: In a new study published in the journal PNAS - Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the team shows that information about the Earth's magnetic field is primarily processed in the ants' internal compass, the so-called central complex, and in the mushroom bodies, the animals' learning and memory centers.

What Happens in the Brain While Daydreaming?

The findings provide a clue that daydreams may play a role in brain plasticity
Image Credit: Scientific Frontline 

You are sitting quietly, and suddenly your brain tunes out the world and wanders to something else entirely — perhaps a recent experience, or an old memory. You just had a daydream.

Yet despite the ubiquity of this experience, what is happening in the brain while daydreaming is a question that has largely eluded neuroscientists.

Now, a study in mice, published Dec. 13 in Nature, has brought a team led by researchers at Harvard Medical School one step closer to figuring it out.

The researchers tracked the activity of neurons in the visual cortex of the brains of mice while the animals remained in a quiet waking state. They found that occasionally these neurons fired in a pattern similar to one that occurred when a mouse looked at an actual image, suggesting that the mouse was thinking — or daydreaming — about the image. Moreover, the patterns of activity during a mouse’s first few daydreams of the day predicted how the brain’s response to the image would change over time.

The research provides tantalizing, if preliminary, evidence that daydreams can shape the brain’s future response to what it sees. This causal relationship needs to be confirmed in further research, the team cautioned, but the results offer an intriguing clue that daydreams during quiet waking may play a role in brain plasticity — the brain’s ability to remodel itself in response to new experiences.

New insights into the genetics of the common octopus: genome at the chromosome level decoded

Octopus vulgaris
Photo Credit: ©Antonio, Valerio Cirillo (BEOM SZN), 2023

Octopuses are fascinating animals – and serve as important model organisms in neuroscience, cognition research and developmental biology. To gain a deeper understanding of their biology and evolutionary history, validated data on the composition of their genome is needed, which has been lacking until now. Scientists from the University of Vienna together with an international research team have now been able to close this gap and, in a study, determined impressive figures: 2.8 billion base pairs - organized in 30 chromosomes. What sounds so simple is the result of complex, computer-assisted genome analyses and comparisons with the genomes of other cephalopod species. This groundbreaking research has just been published in the renowned journal G3: Genes / Genomes / Genetics.

Octopuses, together with squid and cuttlefish, belong to a group of coleoid cephalopods consisting of several hundreds of species that are characterized by highly diversified lifestyles, body structure and adaptations to their environment. The study of these animals looks back on a long tradition, especially since the neuronal plasticity of the octopus brain – meaning the brain's ability to change and adapt as you learn and experience new things – provides evidence for the existence of functionally analogous structures to the brains of mammals. This is making them a comparative model group for neurophysiological studies. Also, their ability to regenerate parts of their bodies as well as the rapid changes of their body patterns, which are important for camouflage and communication, make octopuses a popular research subject for studying how these innovative traits arose – and how they have changed – during evolution.

When Water Temperatures Change, the Molecular Motors of Cephalopods Do Too

Doryteuthis opalescens, otherwise known as market squid, helped UC San Diego researchers discover the animals’ ability to recode RNA in cells to improve their functioning in different water temperatures.
 Credit: UC San Diego/Sea Grant California.

Cephalopods are a large family of marine animals that includes octopuses, cuttlefish and squid. They live in every ocean, from warm, shallow tropical waters to near-freezing, abyssal depths. More remarkably, report two scientists at University of California San Diego in a new study, at least some cephalopods possess the ability to recode protein motors within cells to adapt “on the fly” to different water temperatures.    

Writing in the June 8, 2023 edition of Cell, first author Kavita J. Rangan, PhD, a postdoctoral researcher in the lab of senior author Samara L. Reck-Peterson, PhD, a professor in the departments of Cellular and Molecular Medicine at UC San Diego School of Medicine and Cell and Developmental Biology at UC San Diego and an Investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, describe how opalescent inshore squid (Doryteuthis opalescens) employ RNA recoding to change amino acids at the protein level, improving the function of molecular motors that carry out diverse functions within cells in colder waters.

RNA recoding allows organisms to edit genetic information from the genomic blueprint to create new proteins. The process is rare in humans but is common in soft-bodied cephalopods, such as D. opalescens, which makes seasonal spawning migrations along the coast of San Diego.