Forecasting the Heliosphere's Boundaries

To understand and define the boundaries of our heliosphere, SwRI researchers collaborated with other scientists to use existing numerical simulations to reveal the structure of the heliosphere and its interaction with the interstellar medium. Solar wind data and solar wind pressure forecasts provide important information for heliospheric models to help predict when the New Horizons spacecraft will encounter the heliospheric termination shock, on its way to joining the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft in interstellar space.
Image Credit: Courtesy of NASA/IBEX/Adler Planetarium/SwRI

Scientific Frontline: Extended "At a Glance" Summary: Solar Wind Forecasting and Heliosphere Boundaries

The Core Concept: Scientists are utilizing solar wind forecasting methods, combined with analytic and numerical models, to predict the dynamic plasma boundaries of the outer heliosphere. This research specifically aims to determine when the New Horizons spacecraft will intersect the termination shock.

Key Distinction/Mechanism: The heliosphere is a vast plasma bubble generated by the solar wind that shields the solar system from interstellar radiation. Its boundaries constantly expand during solar maximum and contract during solar minimum, meaning that a spacecraft could potentially cross the termination shock multiple times as the boundary fluctuates.

Major Frameworks/Components:

• Solar Wind Forecasting Methods: Predictive techniques used to model the long-term variations and outward flow of solar plasma.
• Analytic and Numerical Heliosphere Models: Mathematical and computational frameworks used to simulate the structure of the heliosphere, which is theorized to be either comet-like or croissant-shaped.
• Termination Shock: The inner boundary where the solar wind abruptly slows down as it begins to interact with interstellar material.
• Heliopause: The outermost plasma boundary where the outward pressure of the solar wind completely halts against the interstellar medium.
• Solar Cycle Dynamics: The fluctuating periods of solar maximum and solar minimum that dictate the physical expansion and contraction of the heliosphere.

Deflecting Space Weather: The StormWall Defense System

A NASA Solar Dynamics Observatory video of a mid-level solar flare. The flare caused some radio blackouts on Earth, but bigger space weather incidents can cause major disruptions, something a Boston University researcher has a plan to mitigate.
Video Credit: Courtesy NASA Media Library

Scientific Frontline: Extended "At a Glance" Summary: Space Weather Geoengineering (StormWall)

The Core Concept: StormWall is a proposed space-based defense system designed to temporarily fortify Earth's magnetosphere against damaging space weather, such as solar flares and geomagnetic storms. By releasing specific chemical elements at the edge of Earth's protective magnetic bubble, the system aims to deflect harmful solar energy safely past the planet.

Key Distinction/Mechanism: Unlike current defensive measures that passively shield satellites or temporarily adjust their orbits, StormWall actively geoengineers the space environment. It works by launching spacecraft into geosynchronous orbit to release mass-loading materials (like barium or lithium). These chemicals photoionize to create a plasma barrier that disrupts the flow of solar energy and bounces the impending storm past Earth.

Major Frameworks/Components:

• Geosynchronous Spacecraft: A theoretical fleet of six spacecraft orbiting in tandem with Earth's rotation to act as the deployment mechanism.
• Mass-Loading Materials: Alkaline chemical elements (e.g., barium, lithium) strategically released into the space environment.
• Photoionization: The physical process where the released chemicals become electrically charged by solar radiation, seeding the targeted area with plasma.
• Magnetosphere Fortification: The underlying physics principle of increasing the density of Earth's natural magnetic shield to reflect harmful solar wind.

Astronomers Uncover Why Some Solar Eruptions Die

Full Sun views from different NASA solar cameras of a failed solar eruption from data collected in March 2024.
Image Credit: Tingyu Gou

Scientific Frontline: "At a Glance" Summary: The Mechanics of Failed Solar Eruptions

• Main Discovery: Some solar eruptions fail to eject into space because a strong, overarching magnetic cage of strapping fields overcomes the outward momentum of the magnetic flux rope, forcing the superheated plasma to collapse back onto the solar surface instead of launching a Coronal Mass Ejection.
• Methodology: Researchers utilized high-resolution space telescope observations combined with advanced three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic computer simulations to track plasma trajectories and calculate the competing Lorentz forces acting on erupting magnetic flux ropes.
• Key Data: Eruptions are shown to fail when the critical decay index of the overlying magnetic field remains below a threshold of approximately 1.5, allowing the downward strapping force to successfully neutralize the upward hoop force of the flux rope.
• Significance: This structural mapping explains the long-standing discrepancy between the occurrence of intense solar flares and the absence of expected Coronal Mass Ejections, fundamentally altering current theoretical frameworks of solar magnetic stability and space weather phenomena.
• Future Application: Integrating the overarching magnetic field decay index into daily space weather forecasting models will significantly reduce false-positive predictions, providing more accurate threat assessments for satellite infrastructure, global power grids, and crewed orbital missions.
• Branch of Science: Heliophysics, Astrophysics, Magnetohydrodynamics
• Additional Detail: Even when an eruption is successfully contained by the magnetic cage, the trapped kinetic energy violently converts into extreme thermal energy, contributing directly to the continuous and intense heating of the solar corona.

How solar prominences form

The new computer simulations are based on a magnetic field structure that is often associated with prominences: the magnetic field lines in the corona form a double arc with a small dip in the middle. As the calculations show, the flame-like prominence forms in this dip and remains trapped there. All relevant layers of the Sun were taken into account, from the corona, the Sun’s outer atmosphere, to parts of the convection zone below the Sun’s surface.
Image Credit: © MPS

Scientific Frontline: Extended "At a Glance" Summary: Solar Prominence Supply Mechanisms

The Core Concept: Solar prominences are massive, densely packed structures of relatively cool plasma that extend for thousands of kilometers into the Sun's exceptionally hot outer atmosphere, the corona.

Key Distinction/Mechanism: Unlike the surrounding corona, which burns at over one million degrees, prominences consist of plasma cooled to approximately 10,000 degrees. They remain suspended and stable for weeks due to a delicate supply balance: turbulent magnetic forces in the cooler, lower layer of the Sun (the chromosphere) eject bursts of cool plasma upward, while hot coronal plasma simultaneously flows into magnetic dips and condenses, offsetting material that "rains" back down.

Major Frameworks/Components:

• Double-Arc Magnetic Architecture: Magnetic field lines in the corona frequently form a double arch resembling two adjacent mountains; the cool prominence material forms and becomes trapped within the central dip.
• Chromospheric Injection: Turbulent, small-scale magnetic field movements beneath the corona forcefully eject cool plasma upward to feed the prominence.
• Coronal Condensation: Secondary supply logistics occur when hot plasma travels along magnetic field lines into the central dip, where it cools and condenses.
• Multi-Layered Simulation Models: The research framework accounts for all relevant solar layers concurrently, linking turbulent plasma flows below the visible surface, the cooler chromosphere, and the extremely hot corona.

SwRI-led research indicates a more complex Sun’s magnetic engine

NASA's Parker Solar Probe is the first spacecraft to fly through the corona, the Sun's upper atmosphere, and offers a unique perspective on solar processes. Using PSP data, SwRI-led research has revealed a complex system of magnetic forces and kinetic energy associated with protons and heavy ions accelerated by magnetic reconnection.
Image Credit: Courtesy of NASA

Scientific Frontline: Extended "At a Glance" Summary: The Sun's Magnetic Engine and Particle Acceleration

The Core Concept: Magnetic reconnection is an explosive physical process wherein magnetic field lines converge, break apart, and reconnect, converting magnetic energy into the kinetic energy that accelerates particles outward from the Sun.

Key Distinction/Mechanism: Contrary to previous models which assumed uniform particle behavior, recent data reveals that protons and heavy ions react distinctly to magnetic reconnection. Heavy ions are accelerated in a straight, focused trajectory akin to a laser beam, whereas protons generate waves that scatter subsequent particles in a dispersed pattern, similar to a flashlight.

Major Frameworks/Components:

• Magnetic Reconnection Dynamics: The fundamental mechanism that powers solar events by snapping and realigning magnetic fields.
• Differential Particle Acceleration: The observed phenomenon where protons and heavy ions exhibit distinct spectral shapes and scattering behaviors.
• Heliophysics Data Acquisition: The utilization of the Parker Solar Probe to directly sample the near-Sun heliospheric current sheet and test existing high-energy physics models.

Heliophysics: In-Depth Description

Heliophysics is the comprehensive scientific study of the Sun and its profound interactions with the Earth, the solar system, and the interstellar medium. Its primary goal is to understand the fundamental physical processes that drive the Sun's activity, the generation and behavior of the solar wind, and how these forces shape the dynamic space environment known as the heliosphere—the immense magnetic bubble generated by the Sun that encompasses all the planets.

New research takes first step toward advance warnings of space weather

Joint research by Southwest Research Institute and NSF-NCAR developed "PINNBARDS" a physics-informed neural network that connects surface observations of solar active regions to the deep magnetic dynamics of the Sun. The left figure shows solar observations of two warped toroid patterns (derived from SDO/HMI magnetograms) in the southern and northern hemispheres. PINNBARDS-derived results (center) show magnetic vectors (black arrows) overlaid on bulges (red) and depressions (blue) match with observed toroidal bands. The velocity field is marked with black arrows in the right image. These results provide clues about the global sources of active regions that produce space weather, which can impact our technological society.
Image Credit: NASA/SDO HMI/SwRI/NCAR

Scientific Frontline: Extended "At a Glance" Summary: 
Physics-Informed Space Weather Forecasting (PINNBARDS)

The Core Concept: An artificial intelligence-enabled, physics-informed forecasting model designed to predict the emergence of large, flare-producing active regions on the Sun weeks in advance of their occurrence.

Key Distinction/Mechanism: While current forecasting systems rely on small-scale magnetic signatures that provide predictive warnings only hours prior to an eruption, this new methodology utilizes neural networks to connect surface observations directly to the deep magnetic dynamics of the Sun. This allows researchers to reconstruct subsurface states and achieve significantly longer predictive lead times.

Major Frameworks/Components:

• PINNBARDS: The Physics-Informed Neural Network-Based AR (Active Region) Distribution Simulator, which models the connection between surface events and deep solar mechanisms.
• Tachocline Analysis: Focuses on the Sun's tachocline region—the thin transition layer positioned between the uniformly rotating radiative interior and the turbulent outer convection zone.
• Subsurface State Reconstruction: Uses inverted surface patterns derived from the Solar Dynamics Observatory's Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager to establish initial conditions for forward simulations of solar magnetic evolution.
• Toroidal Band Tracking: Analyzes how solar active regions cluster along large-scale, warped magnetic toroidal bands rather than emerging randomly.

Using 100-year-old data to help predict future solar cycle activity

To reconstruct the Sun’s polar magnetic behavior over more than 100 years, an SwRI scientist first corrected anomalies in historical data from Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO) to sync with direct modern measurements of the Sun’s poles. Comparing observations from KoSO in Calcium-K light with magnetic field measurements from the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory’s Michelson Doppler Imager (left) highlights the association of bright regions in Ca K with magnetic activity in the Sun. The right image shows dark blue and green (north polarity) yellow and orange regions (south polarity) regions, indicating where Ca K light and magnetic data are highly correlated.
Image Credit: KoSO/IIA, SOHO/NASA/ESA

Scientific Frontline: "At a Glance" Summary

• Main Discovery: Reconstruction of the Sun's polar magnetic behavior spanning over a century to enhance the prediction of future solar cycle activity.
• Methodology: The research team analyzed historical Calcium K (Ca II K) observations from the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO), dating back to 1904. An automated algorithm processed approximately 50,000 images to identify magnetic field proxies in the Sun's chromosphere, while correcting for data anomalies such as time zone slips and rotation errors.
• Key Data: The study utilized over 100 years of archival data, significantly extending the record beyond direct polar field measurements which only began in the 1970s. Current predictive capabilities are limited to approximately five years, whereas this method aims to facilitate multi-decadal forecasting.
• Significance: Understanding the polar magnetic field is critical for forecasting solar processes, including sunspots, solar flares, and magnetic storms. Improved predictions are essential for safeguarding satellites, power grids, and other Earth-based technologies from adverse space weather events.
• Future Application: The findings will assist NASA and other space agencies in planning long-term missions decades in advance by providing a clearer understanding of expected solar conditions.
• Branch of Science: Heliophysics / Solar Physics
• Additional Detail: Researchers are proposing a future solar polar mission to directly observe these magnetic mechanisms from an ecliptic viewpoint to further validate and refine these models.

The path to solar weather forecasts

Three heads are better than one. Diagram to show the different satellites that made up the ad-hoc sensor network in this study. Their combined data helped paint a picture of how a CME in 2022 changed as it passed by the Earth on its way out of the solar system.
Illustration Credit: ©2025 Kinoshita et al.
(CC BY-ND 4.0)

Scientific Frontline: "At a Glance" Summary

• Core Discovery: Researchers successfully tracked the spatiotemporal evolution of an Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejection (ICME) by repurposing non-scientific spacecraft instruments to monitor fluctuations in cosmic rays.
• Methodology: The study utilized a multi-point observation strategy, synchronizing data from three distinct spacecraft—the ESA Solar Orbiter, the ESA/JAXA BepiColombo, and NASA’s Near Earth Spacecraft—to create a 3D-like reconstruction of the solar eruption's movement.
• Detection Mechanism: The team measured "Forbush decreases," which are temporary drops in background cosmic-ray intensity caused when the strong magnetic fields of a passing ICME deflect high-energy charged particles.
• Key Innovation: A "system-monitoring" radiation monitor on BepiColombo, originally intended only for spacecraft health checks, was calibrated and transformed into a high-precision scientific sensor to detect these particle decreases.
• Data Integration: By correlating cosmic-ray data with magnetic-field and solar-wind measurements from March 2022, the researchers linked specific changes in the particle signals to the physical structural changes of the eruption as it moved away from the sun.
• Primary Implication: This approach establishes a framework for continuous solar weather forecasting by utilizing existing and future spacecraft as an ad-hoc sensor network, providing crucial data to protect Earth's power grids and satellite infrastructure.

Naturally occurring “space weather station” elucidates new way to study habitability of planets orbiting M dwarf stars

Artist's renditions of the space weather around M dwarf TIC 141146667. The torus of ionized gas is sculpted by the star's magnetic field and rotation, with two pinched, dense clumps present on opposing sides of the star.
Illustrations Credit: Navid Marvi, courtesy Carnegie Science.

How does a star affect the makeup of its planets? And what does this mean for the habitability of distant worlds? Carnegie’s Luke Bouma is exploring a new way to probe this critical question—using naturally occurring space weather stations that orbit at least 10 percent of M dwarf stars during their early lives. He is presenting his work at the American Astronomical Society meeting this week. 

We know that most M dwarf stars—which are smaller, cooler, and dimmer than our own Sun—host at least one Earth-sized rocky planet. Most of them are inhospitable—too hot for liquid water or atmospheres, or hit with frequent stellar flares and intense radiation. But they could still prove to be interesting laboratories for understanding the many ways that stars shape the surroundings in which their planets exist.

“Stars influence their planets. That’s obvious. They do so both through light, which we’re great at observing, and through particles—or space weather—like solar winds and magnetic storms, which are more challenging to study at great distances,” Bouma explained. “And that’s very frustrating, because we know in our own Solar System that particles can sometimes be more important for what happens to planets.” 

But astronomers can’t set up a space weather station around a distant star. 

Space Weather: In-Depth Description

Image Credit: Scientific Frontline / stock image

Space Weather refers to the dynamic, variable conditions within the Solar System—specifically the space environment surrounding the Earth—driven primarily by solar activity. It encompasses the physical processes occurring on the Sun, in the solar wind, and within Earth’s magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere that can influence the performance and reliability of space-borne and ground-based technological systems, as well as endanger human health and life.

International research collaboration finds solar gamma rays could unlock the mystery of the Sun’s hidden magnetic fields

AIA Image 193 from Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)
Compiled from 97 still images.
Video Credit: Scientific Frontline

New research conducted by an international team of physicists has found that high-energy gamma rays might offer the key to unlocking the mysteries of the Sun’s magnetic fields.

The study, led by the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the University of Exeter and the University of Amsterdam, concludes that teraelectronvolt (TeV) gamma rays, observable from specialist facilities on Earth, could be the result of this magnetic field interacting with cosmic rays.

By studying these TeV rays, say the researchers, it could be possible to identify where the fields are located, with their initial findings suggesting they are just beneath the solar surface.

“Magnetic activity of the Sun is the driver behind the space weather and as a consequence the effects space weather has on our society,” says Professor Andrew Hillier, one of the authors of the paper at Exeter. “However, it is not possible to see beneath the solar surface to investigate the Sun’s magnetic field before they manifest on that surface. Our study provides a new method by using cosmic rays to peer beneath the solar surface.

Coronal mass ejections at the dawn of the solar system

Artist's depiction of a coronal mass ejection from EK Draconis. The hotter and faster ejection is shown in blue, while the cooler and slower ejection is shown in red.
Image Credit: National Astronomical Observatory of Japan

Down here on Earth we don't usually notice, but the Sun is frequently ejecting huge masses of plasma into space. These are called coronal mass ejections (CMEs). They often occur together with sudden brightenings called flares, and sometimes extend far enough to disturb Earth's magnetosphere, generating space weather phenomena including auroras or geomagnetic storms, and even damaging power grids on occasion.

Scientists believe that when the Sun and the Earth were young, the Sun was so active that these CMEs may have even affected the emergence and evolution of life on the Earth. In fact, previous studies have revealed that young Sun-like stars, proxies of our Sun in its youth, frequently produce powerful flares that far exceed the largest solar flares in modern history.

We need a solar sail probe to detect space tornadoes earlier, more accurately

An artist’s rendering of the spacecraft in the SWIFT constellation stationed in a triangular pyramid formation between the sun and Earth. A solar sail allows the spacecraft at the pyramid’s tip to hold station beyond L1 without conventional fuel.
Image Credit: Steve Alvey, University of Michigan.

Spirals of solar wind can spin off larger solar eruptions and disrupt Earth’s magnetic field, yet they are too difficult to detect with our current single-location warning system, according to a new study from the University of Michigan.

But a constellation of spacecraft, including one that sails on sunlight, could help find the tornado-like features in time to protect equipment on Earth and in orbit.

The study results come from computer simulations of a massive cloud of plasma erupting from the sun and moving through the solar system. Because the simulation covers features that span distances three times Earth’s diameter down to thousands of miles, the researchers could determine how smaller, tornado-like spirals of plasma and magnetic field—called flux ropes—become concerning features in their own right.

NASA's IMAP Mission Successfully Launches to Study Our Solar System's Protective Bubble

Photo Credit: NASA / Kim Shiflett

A new era of space exploration began this morning with the successful launch of NASA's Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP) mission. The spacecraft, launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Kennedy Space Center, is on a journey to help us better understand the protective bubble surrounding our solar system, known as the heliosphere, and to improve our ability to predict space weather.

The IMAP mission is a collaborative effort led by Princeton University professor David J. McComas, with the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) having built the spacecraft and now managing the mission operations. The spacecraft is equipped with a suite of 10 advanced instruments that will work together to sample, analyze, and map the particles streaming toward Earth from the edges of our solar system and beyond. This will provide invaluable new insights into the solar wind – the constant stream of particles from the sun – and the interstellar medium.

Demystifying Space Weather

SDO 304Å

Space weather has become increasingly important in our modern world due to our growing reliance on technology. It can impact various aspects of our daily lives, from communication and navigation systems to power grids and even astronaut safety. In this deep dive, we'll explore the intricacies of space weather, its causes, its effects, and why understanding it is crucial in our technology-dependent society.

Space weather is a dynamic and ever-changing phenomenon that has significant implications for our technology-dependent world. From disrupting communication and navigation systems to causing power outages and posing radiation hazards to astronauts, space weather events can have far-reaching consequences. While predicting space weather accurately remains a challenge, ongoing research and improved monitoring capabilities are crucial for mitigating potential risks. By understanding the causes and effects of space weather, we can better prepare for these events and protect our critical infrastructure and space-based assets. As we continue to explore and utilize space, space weather awareness and preparedness will become increasingly important for ensuring the safety and sustainability of our technological advancements and space exploration endeavors.

Miyake Events: Unraveling the Mysteries of Cosmic Radiation Surges

Image Credit: Scientific Frontline

What if a solar storm a thousand times stronger than any recorded hit Earth today? Imagine a surge of energy from the cosmos so powerful that it leaves its mark not only on our atmosphere but also etched into the very rings of ancient trees. This is the captivating reality of a Miyake event, a cosmic radiation burst that has intrigued scientists since its discovery in 2012. Named after Japanese physicist Fusa Miyake, these events offer a unique window into the dynamic interplay between our planet and the universe, while simultaneously raising concerns about the potential impact such events could have on our technologically reliant world.

What are Miyake Events?

Miyake events are distinguished by a dramatic increase in the production of cosmogenic isotopes, particularly carbon-14, within Earth's atmosphere. This surge in carbon-14 is detectable in tree rings, ice cores, and other natural records like sediment layers and cave formations, providing a historical record of these events1. The leading hypothesis suggests that extreme solar events, such as powerful solar flares or coronal mass ejections (CMEs), are the primary trigger for these events. These solar eruptions unleash massive quantities of high-energy particles that interact with Earth's atmosphere, leading to the increased production of carbon-14 and other cosmogenic isotopes like beryllium-10 and chlorine-362. Interestingly, Miyake events are potentially linked to superflares observed on distant stars similar to our Sun, suggesting a broader astronomical context for these powerful phenomena.

New technology improves space weather monitoring

The Compact Space Plasma Analyzer will improve space weather prediction.
Photo Credit: Courtesy of Los Alamos National Laboratory

Peaceful though it may seem from Earth, space is beset by “weather” that can prove perilous for the sensitive — and expensive — technology aboard the spacecraft and satellites increasingly populating the realms outside our atmosphere. To meet that challenge, Los Alamos National Laboratory researchers have developed the Compact Space Plasma Analyzer, a small and cost-efficient space sensor capable of measuring space weather, which will help protect technology in orbit.

“Space weather, which is made up of charged particles from the sun, presents a range of challenges concerning the design, development and operation of satellites and spacecraft,” said Carlos Maldonado, principal investigator of the Compact Space Plasma Analyzer and a researcher in the Lab’s Space Science and Applications group. “Of particular interest to the space community are the interactions between space systems operating in plasma environments, which can lead to potentially hazardous levels of differential charging and cause interference for GPS and communication signals.”

A long-standing goal in the space weather community is to advance the capability to predict space weather events days in advance, in the same way that terrestrial weather forecasting enables one to anticipate a week of sunshine or snow.

Study Offers Improved Look at Earth’s Ionosphere

Radio signal plasma wave from a parallel magnetic field. This animation shows the Faraday rotation phenomena in black. The grid at the end of the propagation path is the antenna, and the black line shows how the plane of polarization of the radio signal projects onto it.
Image Credit: E. Jensen/PSI.

New measuring techniques will enable improved measurements of the Earth’s ionosphere, a key to studying and reducing the impact of space weather.

Radio signals have been used to study the density of plasma since the 1920s. Transmitting radio sources include ground-based ionosondes (special radar for the examination of the ionosphere), astronomical phenomena such as pulsars and more recently spacecraft signals used for transmitting data. For example, Global Positioning Satellites (GPS) radio signals are used to measure the density of Earth’s ionosphere. However, the response of the radio signal to the ionospheric plasma is more complicated than simply varying as a function of density. The Earth’s magnetic field affects its electromagnetic wave fluctuations as well. For example, Faraday rotation is a well-known phenomenon, as shown in the image above. But, as a technique for measuring magnetic field, Faraday rotation is limited to just the portion that is oriented in the correct direction. Our discovery complements Faraday rotation enabling a complete measurement of magnetic field strength.

The importance of the Earth's atmosphere in creating the large storms that affect satellite communications

Illustration Credit: ERG Science Team

A study from an international team led by researchers from Nagoya University in Japan and the University of New Hampshire in the United States has revealed the importance of the Earth’s upper atmosphere in determining how large geomagnetic storms develop. Their findings reveal the previously underestimated importance of the Earth’s atmosphere. Understanding the factors that cause geomagnetic storms is important because they can have a direct impact on the Earth’s magnetic field such as causing unwanted currents in the power grid and disrupting radio signals and GPS. This research may help predict the storms that will have the greatest consequences. 

Scientists have long known that geomagnetic storms are associated with the activities of the Sun. Hot charged particles make up the Sun's outer layer, the one visible to us. These particles flow out of the Sun creating the ‘solar wind’, and interact with objects in space, such as the Earth. When the particles reach the magnetic field surrounding our planet, known as the magnetosphere, they interact with it. The interactions between the charged particles and magnetic fields lead to space weather, the conditions in space that can affect the Earth and technological systems such as satellites.